Grammar of the Shot (Second edition) by Roy Thompson and
Christopher J Bowen, Focal Press/Elsevier 2009.
This is a very handy reference book which
clearly explains visual language. Essential reading for anyone planning to make films.The
intro explains how “collectively, over time, we have learned to codify our
visual communications” and things now have recognisable meanings. There is an
established grammar – rules of depiction.
The authors argue that film language is the same for all cultures around
the world and that success depends on how well the filmmaker’s vision is communicated. They must decide early on in the creation
process what is important for the viewer to see and how they should be shown
the information.
Think: If I were watching this motion
picture, what would I want to be seeing right now?
A shot is the smallest unit of visual
info, captured at one time from one point of view. A change in camera angle, position or focal
length means it becomes a different shot.
A different way of viewing the action.
Types of shot
·
Extreme close-up (XCU/ECU) –
frames one aspect of subject – eyes, mouth, ear, hand
·
Big close-up (BCU) – face
occupies much of the frame; facial movements and expressions need to be subtle
·
CLOSE UP (CU) is intimate,
magnified, more detailed and precise; aka the ‘head shot’, sometimes shoulder
visible
·
Medium close-up (MCU) – aka a
‘two-button’ as cuts off at chest, viewers looking at the face
·
MEDIUM SHOT (MS) approximates
how we see most things around us – feels comfortable; may also be called the
‘Waist’ shot – need to be careful not to ‘break frame’
·
Medium long shot (MLS) – cuts
off just above the knee usually (aka ‘the Cowboy’ so in Westerns could show the
firearm holster)
·
LONG SHOT (LS) or Wide shot
(WS) is more inclusive – shows relationship with physical space, full body shot
·
Very long shot (VLS) – exterior
or large interior, environment still important but more detail on the human
·
Extreme long shot (XLS or ELS)
– often used as the ‘establishing shot’ at the beginning of a film or sequence;
shows where and often when and who
Composition
Arrangement of visual elements and their
placement in the overall frame is important and will convey meaning to the
audience even if it is subconscious.
Gives meaning and subtext as well as beauty, balance and order.
Try not to give too much headroom
as it wastes screen space and can throw off the overall composition.
When subject looks into camera it is called
‘subjective shooting’. Rare in fiction (called ‘breaking the fourth wall’).
Normally the actors behave as if the camera is not there – this is called ‘objective
shooting’.
Look room is the empty
space we provide within the frame – empty area or ‘negative space’ gives
balance to the weight of actor’s head. This also impels the audience to want to
see what the actor is looking at. If the actor’s face is too close to the near
‘wall’ of the frame, it can seem congested, claustrophobic, trapped. Negative space behind the head can imply
suspense, dread, vulnerability etc
Use the rule of thirds and
consider camera angles as this feeds in to the information conveyed to
the viewer. A straight view from the front can be flat and boring. The ¾ front
or ¾ profile is the most common angle – gives a clear view and increased degree
of dimension. The ‘taking lens’ is on an
even plane – a neutral angle positioned to observe and the audience can relate.
Note that not showing the eyes clearly can
create an impression of duplicity, distrust or emotional disconnect.
Another common approach is the over-the-shoulder
(OTS) giving depth to a shot. Audience
sees from the character’s POV, which encourages empathy. A view entirely from behind hides thoughts,
feelings and intentions but it can create tension and suspense.
The high angle shot via foreshortening
can portray the subject as weaker, powerless, subservient. Creates a power dynamic. Often flattering for the actor. A low
angle shot often shows a looming, significant powerful person. It is
the tilt of the camera lens that determines what the shot becomes.
The profile two-shot is common for a
dialogue. A MCU or CU will force their faces together in an unnatural way
(unless romantic or aggressive).
Two people standing facing the camera is
more subjective in the direct to camera two-shot. Can be
difficult to frame and sometimes there is an overlap with one figure becoming
more dominant.
The OTS two–shot (most commonly as a MCU)
allows intimacy and ease of viewing as there is only one person to look
at. Often have to make actors stand
unnaturally close to each other to get the two-shot framing. In film language,
proximity and grouping equate to unity.
The viewer is kept locked into
understandable spatial relationships via the line of the horizon. This can be broken with the dutch
angle – a tilt to create imbalance and a feeling of instability.
Depth can be portrayed with the use of the vanishing
point. Conversely a flat wall can show a character is trapped. The space is divided into foreground
(FG), middle ground (MG) and background (BG) and these acts as
layers.
A foreground element must enhance the
composition. Avoid having arbitrary elements as they may distract the viewer
from more important details. The
majority of action takes place in the middle ground. Frame shots so that the background does not
overpower the main action. The layers
allow our brain to establish depth cues.
The size of a known object also triggers depth cues. In exterior LS we see atmospherics –
particulates suspended in the air.
What is in focus in the shot is the
important thing for the viewer to watch. Shifting the focus from one subject to
another as the action unfolds is called pulling focus or pushing
focus (or racking focus). There is also following focus when the
camera is tracking a moving object.
Lighting
“… will often be your most powerful
creative tool in your filmmaking toolbox.”
Factors to consider:
- ·
Light as energy
- ·
Colour temperature
- ·
Natural or artificial light
- ·
Quantity of light: sensitivity
and exposure
- ·
Quality of light: soft vs hard
- ·
Contrast
- ·
Basic character lighting: three
point method
- ·
Set and location lighting
Hard light can create scary, dangerous,
harsh or mysterious environments. Soft light implies a sense of warmth,
friendliness or romance.
High contrast, snappy or punchy lighting
schemes can make for more dramatic or suspenseful imagery and help yield more
depth – low-key lighting.
Flat lighting schemes can make images seem
more open, friendly or brighter but flatter. High-key.
Three –point lighting method: key light;
fill light; back light. Contrast ratio.
Also think about the angle of incidence.
In fictional narrative cinematography,
lighting is generally meant to be motivated (generated by some actual
source within the reality of the film world, like a lamp or sun).
When the light is near the recording
camera’s angle on action, it is called front lighting which tends to be
flat and bland. Shadows are not welcome
unless used for creative or thematic purposes.
Side lighting can cause a half bright, half dark face
split. Light behind is called kicker
or rim
light. Best to start with key light roughly 45 degrees from camera,
fill light 45 degrees on the other side.
Top lighting cases shadows in eye sockets,
which prevents audience from relating to the character. Under-lighting can appear ghoulish. No fill
will create a silhouette effect. Light
in the middle ground and deep background helps separate the layers of distance.
Any light fixture that emits light is
called a practical.
Lighting and compositional choices need to
serve the “story”, not fight against it or leave it bland/incomplete. What you choose to reveal to the audience or
hide from them will yield more or less info, more or less understanding and
more or less enjoyment of the project.
Shooting for editing
·
Matching shots in a scene – the entire
visual story needs to be told
·
Continuity – shoot coverage. You ‘cover’ the main actions
form several angles and will several different framings.
·
Continuity of screen direction – filmmakers have a
responsibility to the audience to present a knowable world that conforms to
constant physical world rules eg if a persons moves away to the left, they must
keep moving away to the left until we see some change in the movement happen on
screen.
·
The line – screen direction –
important narrative info and spatial relationship data can be discerned by
lines of direction, aka sight lines
·
The imaginary line – the 180 degree rule (axis of action)
·
Jumping the line (or crossing the line)
– reverses the established directions of left and right, inverting the film
space of the unaware viewer
·
The 30 degree rule – move camera at least 30 degrees around semi-circle
before framing up a new shot; will avoid what is know as a jump cut (two shots with similar framing cause a visual jump in
space or time)
·
Reciprocating imagery (matching shots) –
when shooting to cover one character, create exact same corresponding frame for
other character; need equal numbers of shots and matching framing for each
character; eg OTS allows audience to keep track of the physical placement of
each character in the scene
·
Eye-line match – audience traces an
imaginary line from the character’s eyes to the edge of the frame where they
are looking; next shot should be object of interest revealed – important it is
from a similar direction, angle and height that match the perspective from the
vantage point of the character observing; must maintain and respect eye-line
(this is a “setup and then payoff” scenario maker – illusion of connection and
character association is made by the audience)
Dynamic shots
Blocking talent. Staging
means the physical placement of subjects on the set, within the confines of the
recorded frame. Blocking talent refers to the physical movement of subjects on the
set and within confines of the same frame.
Left to right can reinforce space and direction or blocking deep into
the set adds to the illusion of a 3D frame.
Creative blocking will add energy to shots.
This can also have a meaning in the
narrative (eg American frontier stories move right to left ie East to West)
Handheld
Advantages: gives kinetic energy; personal
immediacy – subjective POV; easy to readjust framing; free movement around the
set
Disadvantages: shaky; difficult to focus;
difficult to cut with static shots; not neutral so may be too subjective;
limits focal length flexibility
Pan and Tilt – horizontal and vertical
positioning. This is not a natural movement for human visual system. Our eye
travels along the space locking onto points of interest. To help the audience accept the movement,
good to motivate it eg following an eye-line.
The audience places itself in the position
of the camera, identifying with the role of that observer. Slower speed means
you can record images and not disturb the audience.
Shooting the Pan and the Tilt
Needs to have the start frame, the camera
movement and the end frame.
Start
frame is a well-composed still shot that could
stand alone as a good static image; let action begin and then begin the
movement. [NB cutting on movement,
either into a shot already in motion or out of shot once in motion is visually
dangerous.]
Camera
movement – should be smooth and steady and “lead”
the movement; needs proper headroom, look room and pictorial composition should
be maintained throughout
End
frame – well-composed static shot that can complete
the action; a steady locked-off frame to cut out from at the end of the P &
T.
Pushing a camera into the set or toward the
subject = trucking in. Moving away =
trucking out (or tracking in and
tracking out).
A wheeled dolly achieves smooth gliding.
Steadicam provides best dolly
qualities with advantages of handheld photography.
A combination of several movements is
sometimes called a developing shot.
Cranes,
booms and jib
arms can create sweeping upward to downward moves to add large areas of
information and sense of grandeur.
Grammar = well-established and proven set
of principles that will enable the audience to understand visual intentions
Communicating
with Talent – use language that makes sense to them
(eg “please slide to YOUR right by an inch or two”). Shooting an ECU, explain
how tight frame is as a small movement can “break frame” (move beyond the edges
of the established frame). “Less is more”.
Ensure an eye-light – life light (twinkle). Ensure the reflection shows the source coming
from the correct direction of other known sources. Eyes always every important.
Safe action line and domestic cutoff.
Approx 10% of picture information can be lost. Will need to compensate for
appropriate headroom and look room. Keep all important action in safe zone, especially if you are
shooting 16:9 imagery that might be displayed on 4:3 screen.
Shoot overlapping
action for the edit – will provide good and varied choices for an action
edit or continuity edit. Wide shots and medium shots may call for more overlap
due to inclusion of more visuals.
Matching speed of action. Closer
shots of overlapping action should have the movements performed at a slightly
slower speed. Close ups with
magnification will appear to move much faster. The less screen space and object
or action occupies within the frame, the slower the movement will appear. Shoot
the CU insert shots slightly slower and at normal speed to provide choice in
edit.
Shooting
ratio – relationship between amount of footage
recorded and what makes it into the final edited piece. Documentaries have larger ratio.
Storyboards
and shot lists – map out the framing and
composition for each shot. Overheads can be simple plans of placement. Shot
lists account for all shots need to get coverage for a scene. Preproduction.
Always have something in focus. We do not like to watch blurry images. There
are special cases for creative use but focus also helps the audience to pay
attention. It is almost always best to rack focus to the background focal plane
as soon as the character exits the frame.
The audience can then immediately rest on the background.
Frame for correct “look room” on shots that will edit together. Compose along the 1/3
line on frame left . The shot of the other character will be mirrored in
composition. Eye-lines trace back and
forth across the empty space. Allow appropriate space even though an inanimate
object does not look back.
Matching camera angles when covering
dialogue. Shot-reverse-shot. CUs and
OTSs should match and mirror so the viewer can understand the overall scene’s
lighting and character placement in the film space.
Place important objects in the top half of the frame. They will have
more weight/visual presence and are assigned greater importance. Interesting compositions use entire frame and
allow (or compel) the viewers to roam around the frame. Lighting can help with
the eye direction.
Colour
choices – can denote meaning also dark clothing can
get lost in dark background. Bright colours appear closer. Coloured gels on lights can create washes eg
cool blue for moonlight.
Headroom. Too much forces eyes and face too low in frame. Too little looks
wrong. Err towards less – safer to lose top edge for frame so chin and jaw
still fully visible. Consistent head
shots in a shot-reverse-shot scenario = important. Try not to reframe
drastically while the subject is speaking.
Beware of distracting objects to avoid losing impact. Keep composition strong
– anything with noticeable movement or bright colour will be an eye
magnet. Make sure no strange lines come
“out” from behind a person’s head.
Use depth
of field to stage shots with several people – layer multiple subjects. The
foreground, middle ground and near background become a combines zone where
persons can be ‘blocked’ to fit within the frame. Bodies may have a slight overlap
by faces should all be clearly visible and discernible. Not often desirable to have one or more
character’s heads turned away but it may seem unnatural if all looking in the
same direction. Experiment.
In a three person dialogue scene, matching two
shots can be problematic. As well as getting two-shots, get clean single
close-ups of all three for editing.
Try to always show both eyes of your subject. The ¾ profile is a highly desirable
blocking/camera angle but not looking directly at the lens as this becomes
‘subjective’. Full profile is a
specialty shot. ¾ approach is solid and
will not disappoint the audience.
Be aware of eye-line directions in closer shots. Eye-line unites the subject’s
gaze with an object of interest.
Understand when and how to perform a zoom. If the camera is locked, a zoom in
simply magnifies the centre of the wider frame.
This optical shift is not possible by the human eye so it can jar. Try hiding the movement by combining the
focal length change with a panning or tilting action.
All shots should be motivated but
especially dolly shots. Usually the
motion of an object or character is sufficient for trucking in – this
replicates what a human might do to get a closer look.
Trucking
out is more unnatural though. Motivation would come
from a character moving towards the camera or at the end of a scene when larger
areas of the environment can be revealed.
This provides a visual overview (often with crane boom or helicopter
mount) as a final summation to the story.
Movement of the talent can provide motivation to cross the 180 line.
Following the action with a continuous shot changes the line. Possible to also use a cutaway shot for the
editor. His breaks the spatial attention of the viewer and the next shot may be
from the far side of the original axis of action.
Get the camera rolling before any critical action happens – ensures all equipment
is up to operating speed. Give critical extra footage at the head and
tail of the shot.
Beware of continuity traps – objects on set which will change over time. Clocks, movement of the sun, audio concerns,
any background activity.
Use short
focal lengths to hide camera movement.
Handheld with long focal length gives shaky and blurred image.
Avoid
wide lenses for close-ups – warps face, especially
nose.
Control depth of field as only one critical plane of focus. This can easily be lost with movement.
Slate
the head of your shots for identification and
organisation – use a physical ‘slate’ (whiteboard) or voice. A physical slate is held upside down for a tail slate.
- Know the rules before you break the
rules. Otherwise you may create a visual
experience that could confuse and alienate the viewer.
- The reason for shooting is editing. If it does not cut together it will become
unusable.
- Your shots should enhance the entire
story. Images will augment the
narrative.
- Involve the viewer as much as possible.
Engagement will come from them needing to pay attention. Show, don’t tell.
- Try hard not to be obtrusive. The camera should be unnoticed by the
audience.
- Know your equipment. Have it ready and
organised.
- Be familiar with your subject. Preparation and anticipation will help.
- Understand lighting – natural and
artificial. Lighting for exposure (enough to record the image) and lighting for
creative purposes.
- Study what has already been done. Find inspiration and common themes or methods
that have been explored before you. BE
WELL-VERSED IN THE ARTS!
